Salem Telephone Company Case Solution Essay Example for Free

Salem Telephone Company Case Solution Essay So as to improve their net gain, Flores has proposed three alternatives as follows. Choice 1 is to build the cost to $1,000 every hour while diminish request by 30%; choice 2 is to decrease the cost to $600 every hour while increment request by 30%; alternative 3 is to expand income hours by up to 30% through expanding their advancement cost. Every choice will influence net gain in the accompanying manners: For alternative 1: Benefit 1 = 205 hours * $400 every hour + $1,000 every hour * (138 * 70%) hours †absolute hours (205 + 138 * 70%) * variable expense $28.7 every hour †all out fixed cost 2,939= - ,994. 92 For choice 2: Benefit 2 = 205(400) +600(138 * 130%)- (179.4 +205)*(28.7) - 212,939= - $34,331.28 For choice 3: Benefit 3 =205(400) +800(179.4)- (205 + 179.4)*(28.7) - 212,939 = $1,548.72 All in all, for option1 and 2, both will diminish in total compensation. Alternative 1 will diminish total compensation by (- 30,383) (- 42,994.92) = $12,611.82, and choice 2 will diminish total compensation by (- 30,383) (- 34,331.28) = $3,948.18. For option3, net gain will increment to an advantage sum. In the event that the advancement cost is equivalent to or under 1548.72, this choice ought to be taken thought. Then again, if the advancement cost surpasses 1,548.72, the total compensation will transform into negative. Nonetheless, as long as it is more gainful than - $30,383, alternative 3 is the ideal decision. Since choice 1 and 2 aggravate their overall gain even and choice 3 expects them to spend almost no on advancement, there is a recommendation to close SDS as opposed to keeping it. In any case, in the event that they close SDS, the adjustment in their total compensation will be: Display 5 They will spare expenses in upkeep, power, etc, yet they will lose the lease benefit $8,000 if there is no other organization leases that floor. In addition, they have to redistribute and the re-appropriating cost will be 205 hours * $800 every hour = $164,000. Along these lines, as it is appeared in Exhibit 5, their additional expense of shutting SDS will be $94,356. On the off chance that they don’t lease the spot to different organizations, they will endure more misfortune than keep SDS. Accordingly, they should keep SDS as opposed to shutting it. What they can improve is to utilize choice 3, which is to expand business income hours by up to 30% through putting more cash on advancement. This might be ridiculous supposing that we investigate their advancement cost in March, we discover that they burned through $8,083 (expanded 15% contrasted with February) on advancement and they expanded business income hours by truth be told, not very many rates (just generally 2%). So as to control their expansion in advancement cost less than 1548.72, they have to increment just generally 20% of advancement expenses to arrive at a 30% expansion in business income hours. Accept the connection between advancement costs with business income hours is the thing that we saw in February and March (15% expansion in advancement cost gets a 2% increment business income hours), they have to increment (30%/2%) * 15% = 225% in advancement costs, which would be 8083 * (1 + 225%) = 26,270. Under this presumption, overall gain of picking alternative 3 will end up being 1548.72 †26,270 = - 24,721.28. In any case, choice 3 would bring them least misfortune and it is the ideal decision.

Business Ethics Dilemma

The Internet today is a significant asset and instrument for some individuals. PCs have been around since the 1950s’. Be that as it may, the prevalence of PCs didn’t take off until the 1990s’. Numerous organizations today advertise, advance, and have their own site. This is significant as it fills in as road of business to advance their items, offer their administrations to their clients, and constantly educate people in general on their exhibition. The Internet additionally furnishes different web indexes in 2011 with well known web crawlers, for example, Yahoo, MSN, Google, and more current web crawlers, for example, (Microsoft) Bing.This paper will ssummarize and break down the moral situation among Google and (Microsoft) Bing web search tools. What's more, talk about why the conduct is exploitative and the effect it has on the association. It will likewise incorporate the hypothesis of morals that clarifies the untrustworthy conduct and recommend approaches t o improve the conduct to maintain a strategic distance from the issues later on. Web When did the Internet start? Back in the mid 1960s’, ARPANET was made by many complex architects, PC researchers, and mathematicians.The ARPANET configuration permitted PCs to associate, run on various working frameworks, and without ARPANET, the Internet wouldn't look or act the manner in which it does today, it may not exist. As innovation propelled professionals started making headways with brushing the ARPANET system to the Satellite Network (SATNET). The specialized term for the association between the systems is between systems administration or better referred to today for some as the Internet. In 1990, Tim Berners-Lee built up a framework intended to improve route on the Internet which got known as the World Wide Web.As the years passed by, and as the innovation progressed so did the web crawlers. Microsoft's full scale passage into the program, server, and Internet Service Provider a dvertise finished the significant move over to a monetarily based Internet. Google versus (Microsoft) Bing On February third, 2011 the Harvard Business Review has announced that, â€Å"Google has started a media mayhem by asserting that Bing â€Å"copies† Google results and Bing unequivocally has denied it. As per the article, when user’s search data through the Bing toolbar the user’s program sends data to Microsoft to gather information, track data and watch to dissect standards of conduct. The Harvard Business Review article additionally has detailed the accompanying, â€Å"Google organized an arrangement for drivel search terms Google made up which made the web crawler present irregular pages Google chose subjectively. At that point Google advised its workers to run Google looks for these drivel terms, and to tap the counterfeit outcomes Google had inserted.The representatives did this on PCs running the Bing Toolbar and IE Related Sites, so their snap des igns were sent to Microsoft similarly as Microsoft's security strategy and different exposures said they would be. Microsoft utilized this information to improve its list items to introduce in Bing results the connections these clients appeared to support, again similarly as Microsoft said it would. † Google is making a charge that (Microsoft) Bing has duplicated their list items process using the toolbar functionality.According to the Harvard Business Review article, â€Å"Microsoft got client authorization for these perceptions and data about clients' snap designs is clients' data not Google's. † In a post at WebmasterWorld, Google's Matt Cutts, composed as follows, â€Å"It's my own, informal conviction that utilizing toolbar information later on to increase our slither isn't just a smart thought, yet explicitly permitted by the first strategies we posted. † Ethical DilemmaThe difficulty here is that Google isn't rehearsing in a moral way as their association is making a claim that Bing is encroaching on their toolbar procedure and following client designs isn't suitable. In view of the Harvard Business audit Matt Cutts further stated: â€Å"A great idea,† when utilizing this strategy however now that Microsoft utilizes this very methodology, unexpectedly Google contends it's inappropriate. Microsoft †Bing has a similar option to utilize this strategy to follow data and dependent on the Google Toolbar Privacy Policy it is revealed that Google maintains all authority to track and use design data to upgrade their inquiry engine.Conclusion Based on the data in the Harvard Business Review article, Google has abused the moral code of client certainty. This is expected the way that Google is working in a similar manner as Bing by checking movement look through its toolbar entry to upgrade the data that it is shown through their site. This influences the workers of Google on the grounds that the company is making a bogus case, and t his may leave a negative inclination with representatives in light of the fact that the association may not be totally clear with it s complete honesty policies.Google could have been forestalled these bogus cases by having an inside consistence group lead look into and with their discoveries could have prompted Google on a superior way to deal with address rivalry endeavors from (Microsoft) Bing. This fortifies the reason for having a code of morals inside an association and that each worker of all levels submits to it.ReferencesInternet. (2011). When did it start. (2011). Recovered on February the sixth, 2011 from: http://PC. howstuffworks. om/web/nuts and bolts/web start. htm Harvard Business Review. (2011). Google Policy. (2011). Recovered on February sixth, 2011, from: http://www. webmasterworld. com/forum80/21-1-30. htm Internet. (2011). Web History. (2011). Recovered on February sixth, 2011, from: http://www. walthowe. com/navnet/history. html Ethical Dilemma. (2011). Google versus Bing. (2011). Recovered on February sixth, 2011 from: http://www. businessweek. com/overseeing/content/feb2011/ca2011024_853469. htm

Search Report Example

Search Report Example Search Report â€" Assignment Example > Abstract Information security is a very sensitive issue because of the ethical issues that are raised as areas of concern. The expansion of global networks has facilitated the smooth operations of trade and commerce because of increased use and dependence on computing systems and communication. Attacks that have been directed at information assets have heightened the need for information security. Securing these systems has had organizations develop their own pool of information security to ensure that they have secure computing environments. The law mandates organizations to protect the personal employee information such as phone numbers and their medical conditions for security reasons (Quigley, 2004). While this information falls into the category of personnel data information security is expected to ensure that this data receives the same level of protection accorded to the important data in the organization. Information security problems that arise most of the time are not te chnical problems but a people problem. This is because ethical issues do not arise because of technical problems but because of people either intentionally or by accident (Buchanan Huczynski, 2004). This report looks at the ethical issues of information security as well as the various legislations that have been made to guarantee information security to individuals as well as to organizations and the empirical theories that explain behavior. IntroductionSecurity is a major concern in every facet of today’s life and technology is no exception. Technology exposes its users to various threats and so the need for legal systems to guarantee the safety of its users (Whitman Mattord, 2009). The internet which is the base of information technology has no geographical boundaries and this makes it a security concern in every country of the world. While it is impossible to formulate laws that generate acceptable behavior, ethics produce socially acceptable behavior in society and it is t herefore the responsibility of organizations to establish their codes of ethical behavior that their users should adhere to and live by (Whitman Mattord, 2009). This is because ethics provide society with the morals standards that enable it function easily. Based on this organizations have formulated their own codes of ethics that its members should abide by which is a collaborative effort that aims to raise awareness of computer responsibility (Whitman Mattord, 2009). Research methods and approachA random assessment of information security variables was used and a model constructed with all these variables: the law, policy and behavior. The data was collected using questionnaires and interviews to provide information about the underlying factors that affect the ethical behaviors of individuals. The inter-relationships between these variables and the overall effect they have on the ethical judgments of individuals. Application of the law and ethics in information securityInformat ion security is governed by laws and ethics which are determined to maintain balance in the society. Laws prohibit certain behavior while ethics are socially acceptable behaviors (Whitman Mattord, 2009). Organizational ethics are drawn from the moral attitudes and the customs of the organization. Actions that move away from what is viewed as acceptable behavior may be punished by the law as a crime. An organization’s legal environment influences the scale in which the information security professionals are able to guarantee the safety of the organization’s information (Whitman Mattord, 2010). The law enforcement is contacted first due their capacity to handle physical security threats but they are ill equipped to handle electronic crime.

Breast Cancer The Second Most Common Cancer - 2975 Words

Project Background (3 pages) Breast Cancer Female breast cancer is the second most common cancer in the world with over 1.6 million cases diagnosed in 2012 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012). Deaths from breast cancer within Australia have increased by 380% from 2003 to 2012 (ABS, 2012)(Smith et al., 2012). An individual’s risk of developing breast cancer increases dramatically with age until 50 where it plateaus giving women a 1:8 lifetime risk (Kamangar et al., 2006)(Davies, 2012). There are several varieties of breast cancer with the most frequent being invasive ductal carcinoma (Fernandez-Vega et al., 2013). Invasive ductal carcinomas begin in the duct before ductal hyper-proliferation and invasion of the surrounding breast†¦show more content†¦Treatment failure is not uncommon with 30% of breast cancer patients having no improvement following current treatments (Lendorf et al., 2011). A better understanding of the genomic and biological patterns associated with breast cancers may provide the key to improving diagnosis as well as management and treatment of this disease. Tumorigenesis and ECM ECM and Cell Niche Breast tissue is comprised of a basement membrane and epithelial cells which are located within an adipose and mesenchymal stroma (RO). The stroma consists of a diverse range of cells including endothelial cells, leukocytes, fibroblasts and many others (Polyak, 2007). The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a major component of the cancer microenvironment or niche consisting of collagen, laminin, fibronectin, proteoglycans and growth factors, including HER2 (Yoneda et al., 2012)(Reference). Invasive carcinomas unlike non-invasive carcinomas extend into the surrounding ECM and tend to induce modifications in the adjacent stroma (LR) (Fernandez-Vega et al., 2013). Several studies have shown the microenvironment and ECM are reservoirs of cellular and non-cellular materials, which help, modulate growth, survival, motility and invasive behaviour (LR)(Maeda et al., 2004). Hence studies on tumour epithelial cells and their niche are of current interest, as these interactions with regards to tumorigenesis have not fully been

Differences Between Goods and Services - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1489 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Marketing Essay Type Compare and contrast essay Level High school Did you like this example? Differences Between Goods and Services This question will be answered in three distinct sections. In the first section the major differences in the evaluation of goods and services will be outlined and in the second section the reasons behind these differences will be examined further. In the third and final section it will be important to concentrate upon the impact that the differences between goods and services will have upon concept evaluation techniques and/or methods. Throughout this investigation we will refer to the case of the Concept Development Corporation and consider this case study in order to further elucidate upon this investigation. It is important to begin this investigation by answering the first question, namely what are the major differences between the evaluation of tangible goods (like toys) and services? The vast majority of money in an economy is spent on either goods or services and therefore it is important to be aware of the differences between the two concepts. Firstly of all, goods are a n entity that can be consumed by the customer. An example of a good is a book or food. In the case of a book, the customer can consume the product on many occasions, in the case of food only once. However, both books and food are united in the sense that they are tangible goods that a customer can use. It is the tangible nature of goods that is often used in order to define goods and as Adil points out, â€Å"goods are real things that people can touch and use† (Adil 2006: pp.4). Services, on the other hand are defined as something that a person does for another, for example, fixing another persons car or completing some handiwork in the house would be classed a service. In contrast to goods, services tend to be defined by their intangible nature, because the product one receives is not something one can physically grasp, but rather it is the provision of something that one needs by another person. As Berry points out, â€Å"whereas goods are first produced, then sold and th en consumed, services are first sold, then produced and consumed simultaneously† (Berry 1985: pp.34). It is clear that there are important conceptual and practical differences between goods and services. Kerr also focuses upon the intangibility of services as their defining feature and argues that as the ubiquitous haircut example illustrates, services tend to have an intangible quality and often (though not always) require the physical presence of both client and service provider† (Kerr 2008: pp.151). However, the difference between tangible good and intangible services are not the only theoretical and practical differences between the two concepts. Firstly, services are often an input into the production process, as the examples of telephone services or accounting illustrate. Due to the fact that such input services can be vital to the development of certain parts of the economy, one could argue that without adequate input service provision certain parts of the economy may never grow at all. â€Å"Countries with inefficient service provision, thus tend to have lower productivity in the manufacturing, agriculture and government sectors† (Kerr 2008: pp.151). Adequate service provision can, therefore, at times be vital in developing an economy in a manner that goods cannot be. Another important difference between goods and services is that â€Å"services tend to be differentiated products, whereas some goods are homogenous in nature and other goods are differentiated† (Kerr 2008: pp.151). As one can see, therefore, there are a number of important differences between the evaluation of goods and services. It is important now to move on to discuss why these differences between goods and services exist in the first place. As has already been noted above, the major difference between goods and services is the fact that goods are tangible products whereas services tend to be intangible in nature. The differences between the two concepts i s clearly illustrated by the example of the Concept Development Corporation. Crawford and Di Benedetto ask the reader to imagine a scenario in which a group of talented and creative friends decide to embark upon a business venture in which they can put their skills to effective use. â€Å"So, they quit their jobs, pooled their savings, rented a small, three-room office, hired a couple of people, coined the name Concept Development Corporation and started serious work† (Crawford Di Benedetto 2006: pp.189). They quickly realised that they were far more effective at creating ideas than evaluating them and they came up with two product ideas that exemplify the differences between goods and services outlined above. The first area in which they had a creative idea was regarding a product that can be defined as a good and their idea was to create toys for children, particularly toys that contained some education value for the children that played with them. â€Å"Their strategy wa s to develop unique toys that required little up-front expenditures. Most toys would have some game or competitive aspect, be it educational, and involve paper, colour, numbers and the like† (Crawford Di Benedetto 2006: pp.190). The second area in which the group of friends had a business idea was in the field of writing and this product is best defined as a service. â€Å"These services primarily involved designing and writing instruction sheets for area firms (training manuals, copy for package inserts, instruction signs – anywhere words were used to instruct people in doing things)† (Crawford Di Benedetto 2006: pp.190). It is clear, therefore, from examining the two types of products developed by the Concept Development Corporation that one product is best defined as a good and the other as a service and that a number of important differences exist between the two products. In the final section it is important to consider the consequences of the differenc es between the two products of the Concept Development Corporation on concept evaluation techniques and/or methods. It is clear, that, due to the fact that goods and services are different in nature, different techniques must be employed in order to evaluate the two concepts. For example, in order for a customer to evaluate the extent to which a good is soundly constructed, they may want to stress-test the product to ensure that it can withstand external pressure inflicted upon it. This type of test would not be applicable to a service. Therefore, due to the fact that goods a re tangible in nature and services tend be intangible, it is far easier to test the toys that the Development Corporation will produce than to test the writing service of the Corporation. As Berry states, â€Å"most services contain few search properties and are high in experience and credence properties, making their quality more difficult to evaluate than quality of goods†. (Berry 1985: pp.40). On t he other hand, another study has found that customers use different criteria in order to judge the quality of goods and services. Whereas customers are more likely to trust their own judgment or those of sales people when it comes to products, one study found that â€Å"buyers relied heavily agreed or strongly agreed with the statement that there is upon personal sources of information in evaluating services, a difference in the purchasing of goods and services† (Jackson 1995: pp.103). It seems, therefore, that the evidence suggests strongly that goods are more readily evaluated than services and Hartman argues that this is the only effective criteria that can used to distinguish in the evaluation of goods and services. He states that â€Å"goods were distinguished from services only on the ease of evaluation dimension† (Hartman 1993: pp.10). In conclusion, it has become evident during this study that a number of fundamental differences exist between goods and servi ces. Goods are tangible in nature and can be consumed once or multiple times by the customer whereas services tend be intangible in nature. This fundamental difference between the two products has been clearly reflected in the experiences of the Concept Development Corporation, which created toys for children as well as a writing enterprise. The toys for children were a clear example of a good whereas the writing enterprise was a clear example of a service. It is likely that the Concept Development Corporation would have far more success in evaluating the toys as a product, because the studies cited in this investigation suggest that evaluating goods is a simpler task than evaluating services. The Concept Development Corporation will have to bear the differences between goods and services in mind when developing their products further. Bibliography Adil, J., 2006. Goods and services. Minnesota: Capstone Press Berry, L., 1985. Problems and Strategies in Services Marketing. The Journal of Marketing, 49 (2), pp.33-46 Crawford, M., Di Benedetto, 2006. New Products Management. London: McGraw-Hill Publishing Hartman, D., 1993. Consumer Evaluations of goods and services: implications for services marketing. Journal of Services Marketing, 7 (2), pp.4-15 Jackson, R., 1995. An Empirical investigation of the differences in goods and services as perceived by organisational buyers. Industrial Marketing Management, 24 (2), pp.99-108 Kerr, W., 2008. Handbook on International Trade Policy. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Differences Between Goods and Services" essay for you Create order

The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe Free Essays

string(31) " to go to military production\." The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe| | The world’s most powerful Communist country was the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, or otherwise known as the Soviet Union. It contained 15 republics that were controlled by a central government. Over time, it developed into a large industrial power that dictated all aspects of the national economy. We will write a custom essay sample on The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe or any similar topic only for you Order Now It set levels of wages and prices, controlled the allocation of resources, and decided what would be produced and how and where goods would be distributed. The Soviet Union was corrupted after World War I. Economic recovery such as Russian industrial production had gotten passed prewar levels by forty percent. New power plants, canals, and giant factories were built. Testing of hydrogen bombs in 1953 and Sputnik 1 in 1957 enhanced the Soviet state’s reputation as a world power abroad. Soviet people did not have much, their apartment’s one room served as both a bed and living room. As the struggle for power continued, Joseph Stalin, the general secretary of the Communist Party, became the master of the Soviet Union and he had a low amount of respect for Communist Party leaders. Stalin was a selfish leader and did not think people from his circle could do anything without him. He believed in a socialist government. The government issued a decree that all literary and scientific work must conform to the political needs of the state itself. As a result of this, there was increased terror. Many believed new purges were to come until Stalin died on March 5. After Stalin’s death, a man named Nikita Khrushchev came in as the chief Soviet policy maker and improved his regime. Khrushchev deleted Stalin’s ruthless policies which became known as De-Stalinization. He also loosened government control on Stalin’s literary works. Khrushchev tried to make consumer goods more popular. He also wanted to increase agricultural output by growing corn and cultivating lands that were east of the Ural Mountains. His attempt in increasing agriculture weakened his reputation within the party. As a result of his bad reputation and increased military spending, the Soviet economy became ruined. He was suddenly deposed in 1964. After Khrushchev fell from power, Leonid Brezhnev, who had been serving as his deputy in the party secretariat, became first secretary of the party. Under his rule the de-Stalinization campaign was highly relaxed. Previous experimental agricultural programs were abandoned and the economy began to flourish. Cold war tensions eased after the Cuban missile crisis of 1962 and there was a limited opening for cultural exchanges with the West. Competition shifted to a space and arms race. In Yugoslavia, a man by the name of Tito, also known as Josip Broz, was the leader of the Communist resistance movement. He wanted an independent Communist state in Yugoslavia. Tito refused to agree with Stalin’s demands of taking over Yugoslavia. By portraying the struggle as one of Yugoslav national freedom, Tito gained his people’s support. Tito ruled Yugoslavia up until his death in 1980. Yugoslavia was a Communist government, but not a Soviet satellite state. The Soviet Union did not allow its Eastern Europe satellites to become independent of Soviet control, especially in Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Hungary. Protests took place in Poland; the Polish Communist Party adopted a series of reforms in October 1956. They elected a first secretary named Wladyslaw Gomulka. He said that Poland had the right to follow its own socialist path. Poland was afraid of the Soviet armed response to his remark so they pledged to remain loyal to the Warsaw Pact. Unrest in Hungary and economic difficulties led to a revolt. What added to the rising rebellion was Imre Nagy, the Hungarian leader, declared Hungary a free nation on November 1, 1956. It also promised free elections. Three days after Nagy’s declaration, the Soviet Army attacked Budapest. 23 After this, the Soviets reestablished control over the country. Nagy was then seized by the Soviet military and executed two years later. 24 Alexander Dubcek was elected first secretary of the Communist party. 25 He introduced freedom of speech and press of freedom to travel abroad. He relaxed censorship, began to pursue an independent foreign policy, and promised a gradual democratization of the Czechoslovakia political system. 26 He wanted to create â€Å"socialism with a human face. †27 All the happiness of the people was ended when the Soviet Army invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968 28 and crushed the reform movement. Gustav Husak replaced Dubcek, did not follow his reforms, and reestablished the old order. 28 In that same year of 1968 a movement for liberal reforms gained widespread support in Czechoslovakia. 29 When the Czech government seemed to be moving away from the Soviet-style rule, the Soviet Union reacted by sending troops into Czechoslovakia in August to ensure the removal of Czech leaders. 30 After this invasion, the Soviets developed the â€Å"Brezhnev doctrine,†31 a policy that called for Soviet intervention to stop any developments that may disrupt the Communist order in Eastern Europe. 32 Political and economic patterns remained constant and still into the 1980s. An invasion of Afghanistan to help a puppet regime broke down into guerrilla warfare. 33 In most cases the Soviets were cautious international players dodging any direct military interventions. Workers and youth began to react to their strict control and lack of consumer goods. High alcoholism increased death rates and lowered production. A growing economic crisis beginning in the mid-1980s forced major political change. 34 Efforts at reform were matched by developments in Eastern Europe that ended the Russian empire. The initial cause was a deteriorating economy hampered by the costs of rivalry with the United States. By the 1980s the economy was grinding to a halt. Forced industrialization had caused extensive environmental disaster throughout eastern Europe. Related diseases impaired optimism and economic performance. Infant mortality rates increased highly. Industrial production slowed and economic growth stopped, but one-third of national income continued to go to military production. You read "The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" in category "Papers" 35 Younger leaders recognized that the system might very well collapse. In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev introduced reforms. 6 He urged nuclear reduction and negotiated with the United States a limitation of medium-range missiles in Europe. The war in Afghanistan was ended by Soviet withdrawal. Internally Gorbachev proclaimed the freedom to comment and criticize. He commended use of market incentives and less use of administrative controls. But strong limits on political freedom remained and the centralized planning apparatus resisted reform. Gorbachev’s policies partly reflected ambivalence about the West as he reduced isolation but still criticized Western values. He wanted reform, not abandonment of basic communist controls. The keynote to reform was perestroika, or economic restructuring. 37 This meant more private ownership and decentralized control of aspects of the economy. Foreign investment was encouraged and military expenditures were reduced to free resources for consumer goods. In 1988 a new constitution gave considerable power to a parliament and abolished the communist monopoly of elections. Gorbachev was elected to a new and powerful presidency in 1990 as people argued for or against reform. 38 By the end of 1991 the Soviet Union had been replaced by a loose union of republics. 9 Gorbachev was dissatisfied so he decided to resign and was replaced by an elected president, Boris Yeltsin. 40 The Communist party was dissolved. Continuing uncertainty showed in 1993 when Yeltsin clashed with the parliament. 41 Yeltsin and the army triumphed and elections followed to produce another constitution. In the midst of continuing political confusion two trends predominated: the economy was weak and there w as a breakdown of values and discipline. 42 Crime flourished and growing economic class divisions threatened stability. The economic and political conditions provoked the states of Eastern Europe to take advantage of the new times to seek independence and internal reform. Soviet troops were withdrawn. Bulgaria arranged free elections in 1989 43; Hungary and Poland in 1988 installed noncommunist governments and moved toward a free economy. 44 Czechoslovakia did the same in 1989. 45 Without a doubt the Soviet Union began to collapse. Ethnic and national tensions got worse dramatically during 1989 to 1991. 46 There was heavy controversy between Georgia, Azerbaijan, Moldavia, and Kirghizia. 7 The Soviet government responded by sending troops to these regions to restore order. All 15 of the republics proclaimed that their laws were more superior than those of the central government. During 1989 to 1990, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldavia all confirmed that they were going to separate from the USSR. 48 However the Soviet government did not recognize any of these independence claims a nd in 1990 Soviet troops stormed various communications facilities in Lithuania and Latvia. 49 During 1988-89, Gorbachev implemented various governmental reforms that radically changed he way in which the Soviet Union was ruled. 49 He persuaded the Communist party to relinquish its monopoly on political power and to recognize the authority of the new Supreme Soviet and the newly created Congress of People’s Deputies. 50 Also, the government created the office of president vested it with broad executive powers. Gorbachev was elected to that position in 1989. 51 The government approved a variety of economic reforms aimed at introducing a market-based economy. These measures included the legalization of private businesses and the reduction of state subsidies for many industries. Numerous economic problems followed, including high inflation and shortages of many goods, in particular food. 52 Meanwhile, democratic reform movements arose in eastern European countries and the legitimacy of Communist rule was challenged. Gorbachev rejected the â€Å"Brezhnev doctrine† 53 and made little effort to support the Communist governments in these nations. Most of them either collapsed or were reconstituted as democratically oriented regimes with the Communist party in a minor role. Gorbachev’s hands-off policy made possible the reunification of Germany in 1990. 4 East Germany in 1989 removed its communist leaders55; the Berlin Wall came down and full German unification occurred in 1990. 56 In 1991, Gorbachev negotiated a power-sharing treaty with most of the union republics. 57 In August, before the treaty was signed, a group of hardline Communists overthrew Gorbachev and seized control of the government. 58 The coup failed very fast because of the large am ount of opposition led by Boris Yeltsin and the failure of important military units to support the coup. Gorbachev survived the attempted coup because of popular support and eventually returned to power. The failed effort led to renewed attacks on the Communist party and to independence movements by minority nationalities. The only violence occurred in Romania when an authoritarian ruler was overthrown. The Communists retained power, through elections, in Bulgaria and Romania. In addition, Gorbachev quit his position as general secretary. 59 A new transitional government designed to give more power to the 15 republics was established. Nationalism continued to rise among the republics. In September of 1991, the Soviet government noticed that Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia were all independent. 0 By November, practically all the rest of the republics had proclaimed their wish for independence from the Soviet Union but at the same time to keep a unified economic economy. On December 8th, Russia, Ukraine, and Byelorussia formed a loose confederation known as the Commonwealth of Independent States, 61 otherwise known as the CIS. By the end of that same month, around December 21, all of th e rest of the republics joined the CIS, except for Georgia. 62 In The Baltic republics declared independence and other regions threatened to secede. By the end of 1991 the Soviet Union had been replaced by a loose union of republics. 63 Gorbachev became very unhappy and on December 25, 1991, Gorbachev resigned as president of the Soviet Union. 64 This ultimately ended the nation. The Communist party was dissolved. Continuing uncertainty showed in 1993 when Yeltsin clashed with the parliament. 65 Yeltsin and the army triumphed and elections followed to produce another constitution. In the midst of continuing political confusion two trends predominated: the economy was weak and there was a breakdown of values and discipline. Crime flourished and growing economic class divisions threatened stability. The new situation in Eastern Europe was marred by ethnic clashes. Yugoslavia fell apart and brutal fighting broke out among its former components. The new governments faced serious economic and environmental problems. Communist parties in Poland and Hungary won elections in 1993-199466 because of economic grievances, but did not attempt to restore the former system because of agitation among minority nationalities; some demanded independence. Although there were several changes over the last decade in Eastern Europe, the 20th century brought fewer changes. The Soviets claimed they were allowing equality for women, but never actually did. 67 They also had negotiated a federation between republics, but minority nationalists were constantly under ethnic Russian control and continued to want to be in charge of their own affairs. However religion maintained a dominant role in the state. People continued to be interested in Western culture, especially in the east European nations. 8 Components of the communist past survive still survive to this very day. The loss of superpower status is resented and the prospects of democratic leadership are insecure. East Europeans whole-heartedly value the benefits of communist welfare social protections and social inequality limits, hoping to combine such ideas with capitalist tendencies. The Russian emphasis on authoritarian government with extreme centralization of power remained. The emph asis on territorial acquisition was maintained with the domination of Eastern Europe after 1945. 9 Among the continuities were a sense of cultural isolation from the West, Russian ethnic domination over minority ethnic and religious groups, and the predominance of the novel as a literary form. Among the differences were the destruction of the powerful landholding aristocracy, the lack of emphasis of the role of Orthodox Christianity, the creation of an industrialized society with a social hierarchy, the presence of household patterns typical of an industrialized state, the attempt to introduce â€Å"socialist realism†70 into the arts, and the collapse of isolation How to cite The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, Papers

Change in the Role of the Government

Question: Describe about the"Change in government role with changing environment". Answer: Nowadays, it has been observed that the issue of increasing ageing population is the major concern and is the subject of great attention throughout the world. The population ageing is the change in the distribution of the population of the country towards the older ages. The population ageing presents the great fiscal challenge faced by the government. The major impact produced by the ageing groups is on the economic status of the country (Feng, Kugler and Zak, 2002). At present, it is one of the serious problems faced by the governments related to its effects on the healthcare, pensions, care services, as well as, the future labor supply. Hence, to overcome these issues, governments should take some steps to prevent the worsening of the economy, as well as, to improve the quality and living standard of all the people. A few changes can be made by the governments in its main policy options like adjusting the pension systems to cope up with the future problems are delaying the retirem ent, to lower down the pension payments, as well as, to undertake the welfare reform (Grafenhofer, 2007). By increasing the age of the retirement or by delaying the retirement will lead the long period of working by the people. This in turn will help in avoiding the decrease in the labor participation and will also provide the decline in the number of the pensioners. Hence, increasing the economic status of the country. The provision of health care, which is made available through the government, is affected by a number of variables, like the production costs, as well as, the level of the funding, which is received through taxation (Stijepic and Wagner, n.d.). Therefore, with an increasing ageing population, there is the requirement of the government to lower the pension payments and to increase the contribution rate. In other words, lowering pension payments will help in leading the old people for continuous working. At present times, goods price, as well as, the medical treatments is very costly, and if government will lower the pension, it means that the older people may not be able to pay for all their leisure entertainment, as well as, for their healthcare treatments, or for buying daily items too. Hence, they will have to get back to their job for earning more money for better quality of life due to the fact that no support will be available from the governments. Moreover, lowering pensions with increasing the contribution rate will lead to the alleviation of the budged burden for the government. Hence, increasing contribution rates can be considered as the source of raising tax revenues overall, which in turn will increase the level of funding and thus, the better supply of the healthcare system (Long and Pfau, 2009). References Feng, Y., Kugler, J. and Zak, P. (2002). Population Growth, Urbanisation and the Role of Government in China: A Political Economic Model of Demographic Change.Urban Studies, 39(12), pp.2329-2343. Grafenhofer, D. (2007). Economic ageing and demographic change.Vienna Yearbook of Population Research, 2007, pp.133-165. Long, G. and Pfau, W. (2009). Ageing, Poverty and the Role of a Social Pension in Vietnam.Development and Change, 40(2), pp.333-360. Stijepic, D. and Wagner, H. (n.d.). Population-Ageing, Structural Change and Productivity Growth.SSRN Electronic Journal.

Safeguarding Essay Example

Safeguarding Essay Outline key legislation and regulations which govern safeguarding adults work. In this part of the assignment I will be stating the main key points of each piece of legislation and how it is applied in practice. Safeguarding Vulnerable Adults thesis piece of legislation was introduced on the 8th November 2006, the whole idea of this act is to protect adults who are at risk of abuse due to a vulnerability. For example, someone with Down syndrome may be more at risk of getting abused due to their lack of social skills and knowledge. The key points of this legislation are? Every employee needs a CRY/DBS check, especially within a health and social care environment. This can prevent abusive situations from occurring. Every single workplace has their policies and procedures to make sure that they follow this act. Rehabilitation of Offenders Act teethe rehabilitation of offenders act 1974 of the I-J Parliament enables some criminal convictions to be ignored after a rehabilitation period. Key points of this legislation include: For adults, the rehabilitation period is 5 years for most non-custodial sentences. For a young offender- under the age of 18, the rehabilitation period is generally half that or adults. Prison sentences of more than 2 h years can never been spent. The rehabilitation period is determined by the sentence, and starts from the date of the conviction. After this, if there has been no further conviction the conviction is spent. The Ex offender may not have to mention what they have done whilst applying for a job. Http://www. Legislation. Gob. UK/gap/1974/53 21907521653500Depending on the conviction, it depends on how much time is spent: How is this applied in practice? We will write a custom essay sample on Safeguarding specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Safeguarding specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Safeguarding specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The rehabilitation offenders act protects offenders from discrimination when applying for a Job due to their previous records. It also makes it possible for them to lead a normal life, particularly if they have served their sentence and are desperate to put the past behind them. The Police Act 1997 The police act was introduced in 1997. This was a result of the Danceable massacre which took place in 1996. The Danceable massacre took place in a school where a man walked into a school and shot 16 children and a teacher in the space of three minutes. This was the reason the police act was introduced, purely so massacres like these cannot happen anymore. No person is allowed to carry a firearm without a license. Another reason as to why the police act was introduced was so police have access to computers, mobile phones and cameras. This is in case the police think someone is suspicious, they may be able to back it up with proof, for example, if someone is holding indecent content on their computer/laptop the police will be able to find out and search the computer to find out the proof theyre looking for. This act will help to safeguard adults in the future by making the public aware that the police can easily access phones, computers and cameras. Therefore people are less likely to o the crime as they are more at risk of being caught. The Sexual Offences Act 1976 The act was introduced in 1976. This was because the government wanted tougher sentences against adult sex offences. The act complements the new criminal Justice act, under serious sex attacks will receive mandatory life sentences. The key point of this legislation is to protect vulnerable adults, make them feel safe, have regular CRY/ DBS checks. If an individual has been put on the sexual offenders list then they could be on there for the rest of their life, or up to five years depending on how their court case goes. A few bigger points are: In 2003 the sexual offences act changed so people can even be convicted from having horrifically inappropriate photos to flashing or even rape and sexual harassment. People convicted of a sexual offence must tell the police about their living arrangements and if they are planning to move they must inform the police so the police can investigate if the home is suitable. If they want to leave the country they must get permission although in most circumstances countries will not allow them in anyway. Http://www. Cups. Gob. UK/news/ fact_sheets/sexual_offences/ It makes new provisions about sexual offences, their reversion and the protection of children from harm from other sexual acts and connected purposes. This then means that sex offenders cannot work with vulnerable adults or children, if they were to apply for a unsuitable Job, they could be convicted. Care Standards Act nationally minimum standards were published in 2003 following the care standards act 2000. They form the basis of the inspection of a care setting to protect a patient from being abused/neglected. Different versions of national minimum standards exist for each category of a care setting: Care home for older people (65+) Care home for adults (18-65) Domiciliary care homemade. Nurse agencies Adult placement schemes This law replaced a law called the registered homes act 1984 which regulated nursing in residential homes. Its purpose is to have control of the whole concept of care and to regulate those who provide it. They will make regular checks to ensure that all the laws and policies/procedures are being followed. Care services it covers include independent fostering agencies, domiciliary social care providers, residential family centers and boarding schools. How is this applied in practice? Robust reoccurred should be in place for responding to suspicion or evidence of abuse or neglect to ensure the safety and protection of individuals. Mental Health Act 1983 The mental health act was first introduced in 1983 (further amended in 2007) and sets out how you can be treated if you have a mental disorder, and what your rights are. It was introduced to stop any person getting sectioned, to protect peoples health and also to make sure all your rights are protected. Constantinople have different types of mental disorders and they can be admitted to hospital against their will under this act. This includes people with severe mental impairment, psychopathic disorder or mental illness. Patients are only sectioned if they are a threat to themselves or others. For a patient to be sectioned it must be approved by two doctors and a social worker, even in some cases a close relative. How does this help stop abuse? In the past people could be sectioned by someone who disliked them or wanted them out of the way, due to this law, no one can be sectioned unless they need to be. Mental Capacity Act 2005 The mental capacity act 2005 came into force in England and Wales in 2007. This act revised the legal framework for acting and making decisions on behalf of vulnerable individuals who lack the mental capacity to make particular decisions, for example if somebody is really ill, it may be turning of a life support machine. This act applies to anyone aged 16 or over. It protects people with mental health problems as well as people with dementia, learning disabilities, strokes or brain injuries. People with mental health issues may find it difficult to make decisions some or even all of the time. How does the act support vulnerable people? Protecting those who cannot make their own decisions Making it clear who can make decisions on the persons behalf Allowing people to make some decisions in advance for themselves(living will) Providing a new service to support those who have no one to help them make decisions. Planning ahead. This act also states that anyone can plan ahead for a time when they may lack mental capacity by using a lasting power of attorney. Lasting power of attorney is someone who make decisions on their behalf. This includes decisions about property and financial affairs as well as health and personal welfare decisions. Disability Discrimination Act 1995 amended 2005 The disability discrimination act 1995 aims to end the discrimination that faces many people with disabilities. This act has been significantly extended, including by the disability discrimination order 2006. It was introduced to ensure that those with a disability have equal opportunities in everyday situations. The key points of this law are, it now gives people with disabilities rights in the areas of: Employment Education Access to goods, facilities and services, including larger private clubs and transport services. Buying or renting land/property Functions of public bodies How is it put into practice to help safeguard adults? To address some of the practical difficulties that these barriers present, the disability legislation, unlike other anti-discrimination legislation creates a positive duty on employers and service providers to make reasonable adjustment to their policies and premises where reasonable and appropriate, such as ramps and lifts. AS/ For this part of the task, you are required to demonstrate your knowledge by producing a grid that identifies and outlines w working strategies and procedures in place to help safeguard vulnerable adults. What is a law? A law is something that has been set in stone and will not change for any particular resonates is a strategy? A strategy is how you do something but this also depends on what setting you are in. Different working strategies may be different for each care home Guidance Brief outline How does it help protect the individuals? The protection of vulnerable adults scheme for adult placement (OVA) The Protection of Vulnerable Adults Scheme (OVA) has been introduced to help minimize abuse and involves checking records to assess the suitability of people to work as careers for vulnerable adults. This helps to protect individuals as they know that there is legalization and procedures put into place and therefore know that theyre safe from abuse. Every time I go into a care setting money is missing, as a result of this it gets reported each time and they soon establish that it is the same person who is being suspected as money is going missing at the same time every time a certain person is in. As a result of this there is now enough evidence that it is them stealing money and they are convicted and lose their license This helps to prevent financial abuse in a care home. No secrets- Dept. Of health guidelines 2000 / Review of no secrets guidance 2008 This law suggests that we do not keep secrets and if we suspect that this is happening we MUST report it and they will send investigators in. Dignitaries. Org This will prevent abuse in a work place as if somebody knows about it is their place to say, therefore it will hopefully stop abuse. Safeguarding adults- a national framework for good practice and outcomes in adult protection work 2005 This law states what level of care should be in place and that everybody should be treated fairly. This helps to rote individuals as they all know theyre being treated the same and have the same rights as anybody else Codes of practice for nursing and social work EGG. BASS, NC and SEC This law states that you have license to practice. You will be strike off if you do something wrong/bad. It also proves that you are who you say you are, regular training is given to update records. Youre unable to accept gifts from people youre working with as it could be seen as offensive. This will help protect individuals as if they know that youre being regularly trained and are up to date with information they may feel safer and secure under your care. Multi-agency working- decision making forums, keeping records, support planning and single assessment process. This is about different agencies working together to find out if a certain person is being abused, they communicate with everyone and working together helps to ensure that no body is abused. They also share information to come to a decision on what is best for the person. Having more than one agency looking out for you may make the individual feel worth something and as though they are safe and protected from anything in harms way. Staff training The company will pay for staff training and this MUST be regular. They will learn first aid, manual handling and the correct ways to move people in and out of beds and certain places. Staff being trained gives them trust from individuals, if theyre being trained properly then the individuals know that they are doing their Job properly Role of care quality commission (ICQ) This law is a set of inspectors that are there to do regular checks to ensure that you are doing your Job properly. If youre doing it right you will get a grade. Otherwise you will be told what to do and have another check-up 6 months later, if things have not improved you will more than likely be put out of business. This helps to protect individuals in a care setting as regular checks to make sure the home is running properly will make them feel as though they are important. They will know that they are safe as if something is wrong ICQ will pick up on it and something will get done about it http://www. ICQ. Org. UK/ Whistle blowing This is about reporting something that you see, it could be about how a member of staff are treating another person. If someone has trust in a care worker then they could tell them if anything is wrong, this could then send an alert to a member of staff and something could be done about it Complaint procedures Every organization has a complaints service, this is because people have the right to complain about something if they feel it Is not right or suitable. If a family member is worrying about the service user or has a complaint then this service will give them the opportunity to be able to complain and get their views put forward. MM/ Describe legalization, regulations, working strategies and procedures used in health and social care to reduce two types of abuse. Christine could be subject to physical abuse, to prevent this safeguarding adults 2006 could help as the law states that all careers should have a up to date DBS. This should minimize the chances of physical abuse in the care setting. Care standards act also outlines the standard of care that must be given in a home, this prevents abuse as if anything is below the standard they will either have serious consequences or will be completely shut down. OVA means that all staff has a ova check to make sure that they have not been previously convicted involving abuse of any kind. If they have this person will not be allowed to work with Christine. This will minimize the chances of her being abused as if they have not abused before they may not do it this time. No secrets this means that if other careers can see abuse happening they MUST report it. If the abu ser knows that someone will tell someone else that theyre abusing, they are less likely to do so. This could prevent her being abused as if she is being abused and someone knows about it they could tell someone else and it can be prevented as soon as possible. Christine could also be prone to financial abuse. The Mental capacity act could help Christine as she could have brain damage and be unable to make her own decisions and therefore needs a power of attorney. Having this could minimize the chances of uncial abuse as people would know who would be abusing her and be able to do something about it. As Christine has the mind of a child, if somebody tells her to do something like give them her money, she will more than likely do so. To prevent this, if somebody notices that there is money going missing they can use the police act to check her money going in and out, they can check all of her computers she has accessed to see if her online banking has been used, hopefully this way they will be able to track down the money and the person who stole it. This act can also prevent there things happening to Christine, it will prevent abusers taking possessions, benefits, inheritance and pressure in connection with wills.

Essay on The psychiatric disorders

Essay on The psychiatric disorders Essay on The psychiatric disorders Essay on The psychiatric disordersThe video on famous people with mental illness demonstrates that many actors, authors, musicians, sportsmen and other public figures suffer from different mental and behavioral disorders. The video gave two main sources, one of which is National Alliance on Mental Illness website and another is Centers of Disease Control and Prevention webpage. They present reliable information, statistical data and case studies of different mental illnesses, they also offer help tips for those who require it and suggest apply to self-pre diagnosis in some cases. Though it is evident that work-related stress and other issues of famous people make them become victims of such illnesses as bipolar disorder, depression, stress disorder, the most surprising was to learn about Gillian Anderson, David Beckham, Halle Berry, Jim Carrey and Ernest Hemingway. David Beckham who is one of the most admired sportsmen having talent and recognition surprisingly suffers from obsessive compulsive disorder. The football player counts clothes and has everything put in a straight line and symmetrically. He describes the disorder as quite tiring. Jim Carrey, one of the most famous producers and known comedians in the world, has a remarkable story from poverty to smashing success. He accepts that has suffered from depression and bipolar for a long time. His depression was accompanied with abrupt mood changes and constant state of sadness. Ernest Hemingway, one of my favorite writers of the twentieth century, has a long story of suffering that eventually led him to suicide. All his life the author of â€Å"For Whom the Bell Tolls† and â€Å"The Sun Also Rises† was obsessed with death. Participation in World War I and World War II resulted in the talented writer’s posttraumatic stress disorder, insomnia, bipolar, narcissistic disorder, paranoia and depression. It is hard to believe that the author of immortal works of fiction suffered from so many i nterrelated psychiatric disorders.

How does the book "Mindsight" explain the happiness one can Coursework

How does the book "Mindsight" explain the happiness one can acquire that is listed in the book "Happiness Hypothesis" - Coursework Example There is value first in exploring Aristotle’s ideas on happiness, and the relationship between the emotions and happiness. It is important to note that in reference to Aristotle’s idea of happiness, or what can be summed up in the word eudaimonia, the notion of happiness is not necessarily linked to passing emotions at any given time, but is more associated with the achievement of virtue, a direction or an overarching purpose or sense of meaning to one’s life that can be only gleaned with finality at the end of a life, as a culmination and as an endpoint to be reached (Burton). This happiness is also tied to what Aristotle terms as the mean, or that middle ground between extremes, the achievement of which can be construed as a standard for evaluating the happy or unhappy life. The achievement of the mean is tied to the successful cultivation of virtue, and this life lived in virtue, over a span of a lifetime, is what constitutes happiness. There is moreover the f ormulation in Aristotle of happiness not as something that is useful for another end, but is something that can be considered as the final and ultimate good, a good in itself, and the end of all of human activities. Therefore, happiness is somewhat also tied to a sense of things being alright, of a positive feeling in a way, that is the real end of all human strivings, from gathering and eating food, to earning money, traveling, establishing a family, taking care of one’s body to be healthy. In this latter formulation there is the sense of the emotions having some value as a kind of inner compass that can guide one and act as a kind of thermostat or inner compass leading towards the achievement of that state of happiness that Aristotle discussed extensively in the Nicomachean ethics. There is a sense of happiness in Aristotle of being an activity, a kind of striving, with the emotions signalling whether the direction of one’s life and the results of the striving are pl easant or

Should the government raise the driving age Essay

Should the government raise the driving age - Essay Example The only failure that the training institutes do not cover is how a driver can react to a situation that may determine the safety of the driver and other road users. The safety of the driver and the road users is thus dependent on the physical, emotional and psychological form of the driver. As a result, various factors have led to the occurrence of various accidents. The situations have caused the various governance bodies in the region to enact laws in an attempt to control the number of accidents that occur. One of the measures is the regulation of the generation that is suitable for issuing a license for driving. After many years, the federal government of the United States has given mandate to issue licenses to new drivers. The age limit is however national and is sixteen. The argument thus lies on what is the best age to give consent to with the aim of ensuring safety in the roads. There is a need to rise the age of driving from sixteen to a more mature age. (Heidi E. Nemme). Research has reveled that the teenage individuals who are at the tender age of sixteen do not possess the necessary capacity to deal with the risky situations that the roads pose. The teenagers tend to be immature in the dealing of critical situations. More studies show that the teenagers have a thrill with the speed and are more prone to over speed while driving. Most of the teenagers do not have an inherent knowledge to analyze the various dangers that the urge of over speeding can bring. Over speeding is dangerous and causes accidents numerous studies have revealed. Research shows that about seventy-seven percent of the accidents in the US include people who are miners who tend to be behind the wheel. Therefore, there is a serious urgency of rising the age to a more self-realistic age (Reports). The ideal age is above eighteen years since people of the age are mature in their consequen t decisions. The psychological wellbeing is also a key issue

Psychological Models of Health

Psychological Models of Health Module Title: Sociology and Psychology and Public Health Part 1 Literature Review Health behaviour can be described as behaviour aimed to prevent or detect disease (Kasl and Cob, 1966). Models of health behaviour have been developed to understand how people make decisions about their health and predict the likelihood that health behaviour change will occur. This essay will aim to review a number of established health behaviour models focusing on Cognition Models, Social Cognition Models and Stage Models in relation to public health and health promotion interventions. Cognition Models The Health Belief Model (HBM) is a cognition model originally developed by Hochbaum in the 1950’s with later versions of the model being added in the 70’s (Rosenstock 1966; 1974) (cited by Conner and Norman, 2008/2005). The HBM is based on the probability that individuals are influenced by a threatened disease or illness based on a belief that they are vulnerable to a condition; there would be consequences of the condition if no action was taken; that they can prevent a condition developing by taking action; or the benefits of reducing risk of developing a condition are greater than the cost of taking action (add reference). This model was originally developed to predict the participation in screening tests and vaccination programmes with the focus on single preventative behaviours, more recently it has been used in areas of lifestyle behaviours which may sometimes involve life-long behaviours (Baranowski, Cullen, Nicklas, Thompson, Baranowski, 2003) various studies su ch as Abraham and Sheeran (1994) have questioned the appropriateness of using the HBM as a perceived threat to motivate behaviour with some groups, for example, groups of children and adolescent who assume they will live forever (Baranowski et al., 2003). Other critiscisms of the HBM are that it is too focused on the individual and does not consider social, economic and emotional factors (Strecher et al, 1997). In response to criticism the HBM has been adapted to include self-efficacy and health motivation (Ogden, 2012). The Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) developed by Rogers 1975/1985 (cited in Ogden, 2012 pg 50), expands on the Health Belief Model with the addition of emotional factors such as, introducing an element of fear. The framework of PMT is based on using the appeal of fear to influence attitudes and behaviours. The research for the model was centered on the fear-drive model which sees fear as a force by which to motivate trial and error behaviour (Conner Norman, 2008/2005). A study (Wu, Stanton, Li, Galbraith, Cole, 2005) that used PMT to establish health motivation and risk involvement, was successful in using PMT to predict behavioural intention in a variety of behavioural areas such as, smoking cessation, exercise and diet, cancer prevention and condom protection to name but a few. PMT has not received the same level of criticism as HBM however, many criticisms of the HBM also relate to PMT, largely in that it does not allow for social and environmental factors (Ogden 2012, pg 52) Social Cognition Models The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Fishbein and Ajken, 1975) or in its extended form Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajken, 1988) are formed based on the idea that the greatest predictor of behaviour is of behavioural intention (Ogden, 2012). The TPB model is used widely in health fields (Armitage and Conner 2001; Taylor et al. 2007). In addition to attitudes, for example, exercise is fun and will improve my health, the TRA added subjective norms, using the perception of social pressure to perform a behaviour, for example, a desire to please others and gain approval. The TPB adapted the TRA model by adding a concept of perceived behavioural control, which is the individuals perception as to whether the behaviour will be easy or difficult, the concept is similar to Bandura’s (1982) concept of self-efficacy (Conner and Norman, 2008/2005). Both models are used in many areas of health promotion in relation to behaviour change, in current UK policy setting they can be found in exercise intentions; weight gain prevention and eating behaviour; addiction related behaviours; HIV prevention and condom use (Taylor, 2006). The TRA model has been used to show patterns of behaviours such as fat, salt and milk intake whereas the TPB model was used to give details of attitudes and beliefs about starchy foods in the UK (Stubenitsky Mela, 2000). The TPB and TRA differ from the HBM and PMT models in that they have added an element of social and environmental factors by including normative beliefs. Criticisms of the TPB and TRA focus on methods used to test theory and the extent at which they can predict behaviour (Ogden, 2012). Stage Models Transtheoretical Stages of Change Model and Precaution Adoption Process Model The Transtheoretical model (TTM) was developed in the 1980’s by a group of researchers at the University of Rhode Island. TTM was first used in smoking cessation in studies carried out by DiClemente and Prochaska (1982), and is often referred to as simply the stages of change model. The model suggests that health related behaviour change occurs through five stages know as: Pre-contemplation; contemplation; preparation; action and maintenance (Conner and Norman, 2008/2005). Movement or transition through the stages is driven by self-efficacy (the confidence in oneself to change behaviour) and decisional balance (weighing up the costs or benefits to the behaviour), relapsing backward and forwards through the stages is also common (Morris, Marzano, Dandy and O’Brien, 2012). Since 1985 application of the TTM has influenced service planning, provision and training agendas at local, regional and national levels (Bunton, Baldwin, Flynn, Whitelaw, 2000). Bunton et.al, (2000) r emarks on the rise in popularity of the TTM. Examples of areas where TTM has been used include studies in the area of dietary changes, exercise and activity promotion, sexually transmitted disease and pregnancy prevention (cited in Morris, Marzano, Dandy and O’Brien, 2012). Limitations of the model have been suggested by Conner and Norman (2008, pg 247) in that fundamental problems with the definition and measurement of the stages are present. Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) First suggested by Weinstein (1988) and further refined by Weinstein and Sandman (1992) the Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) specifies seven stages ranging from ignorance to maintenance of the behaviour. The first stage is, unawareness of issue; second, unengaged by issue; third, deciding about acting; fourth, deciding not to act; fifth, decided to act; sixth, acting; and finally seventh, the maintenance stage. Although similar in some ways, the difference between the PAPM and the TTM is the extra stages, PAPM has 2 additional stages which includes the decided not to act stage which makes a clear distinction between having never thought about adopting a precaution before and having thought about it but deciding not to act (Conner Norman, 2008/2005). Other advantages of the PAPM are that it allows for messages to be tailored at each stage of the model which is helpful in situations where resistance to change is high and its simple questioning method makes it suitable for both individual and group settings, Weinstein Sandman (2002), (The Free Library, 2014). In summary each model has its own unique aspects References Abraham, C., Sheeran, P. (1994). Modelling and modifying young heterosexuals HIV-preventive behaviour; a review of theories, findings and educational implications. Patient Education and Counseling, 23(3), 173-186. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0738-3991(94)90033-7 Armitage, E, C.J. Conner, M. (2001). Efficacy of the Theory of Planned Behaviour: a meta-analytic review. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 471-99. Baranowski, T., Cullen, K. W., Nicklas, T., Thompson, D., Baranowski, J. (2003). Are Current Health Behavioral Change Models Helpful in Guiding Prevention of Weight Gain Efforts? Obesity Research, 11(S10), 23S-43S. doi: 10.1038/oby.2003.222 Becker MH. The health belief model and personal health behavior. Health Education Monographs. 1974;2:324-473. Bunton, R., Baldwin, S., Flynn, D., Whitelaw, S. (2000). The ‘stages of change’ model in health promotion: Science and Ideology. Critical Public Health, 10(1), 55-70. doi: 10.1080/713658223 Morris, J., Marzano, M., Dandy, N. O’Brien, L. (2012). Theories and models of behaviour and behaviour change. Forest Research, Theories: Behaviour Change Report Rosenstock IM. The health belief model: explaining health behavior through expectancies In: Glanz K, Lewis FM, Rimer BK, eds. Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research, and Practice. Stretcher, V., Rosenstock, I.M. (1997). The Health Belief Model. In K. Glanz, F.M. Lewis, B.K. Rimer (Eds.) Health Behaviour and Health Education: Theory, Research and Practice (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Stubenitsky K, Mela DJ (2000) UK consumer perceptions of starchy foods. British Journal of Nutrition 83: 277-285. Taylor, D., Bury, M., Campling, N., Carter, S., Garfield, S., Newbould, J. Rennie, T. (2007). A Review of the use of the Health Belief Model (HBM), the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the Trans-Theoretical Model (TTM) to study and predict health related behaviour change. Taylor, D., (2006). Review of the use of the Health Belief Model (HBM), the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the Trans-Theoretical Model (TTM) to study and predict health related behaviour change. The Department of Practice and Policy. The School of Pharmacy, University of London The Free Library, Precaution Adoption Process Model: need for experimentation in alcohol and drug education.. (n.d.) >The Free Library. (2014). Retrieved Jan 15 2015 from:http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Precaution+Adoption+Process+Model%3a+need+for+experimentation+in-a0169677077 Wu, Y., Stanton, B. F., Li, X., Galbraith, J., Cole, M. L. (2005). Protection Motivation Theory and Adolescent Drug Trafficking: Relationship Between Health Motivation and Longitudinal Risk Involvement. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 30(2), 127-137. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsi001 Part 2 Case Study This case study is based on Chris, a 40 year old man. Chris is aware he has some health issues. However, recent marital breakdown has resulted in a disruption to his home and family life and he is lacking the motivation and self confidence to make positive changes which he knows will benefit his health. I will look at how applying health psychology can be used to motivate and change Chris’s behaviour. The notion of motivation and self-efficacy can be found in most models of health behaviour (Ogden, 2012). Since Chris is already aware of his health situation and has made some steps i.e. visiting the doctor, to discuss his symptoms and circumstances, therefore, the Transtheoretical Stages of Change Model will be what I am focusing on during this case study. Based on the five stages of change of the Transtheoretical change model Chris would be between stage 1 Pre-contemplation and stage 2 Contemplation. The main aim will be to get Chris from the Contemplation stage to the Preparation stage and beyond. At this Pre-contemplation-Contemplation stage motivational interviewing may be helpful. Chris has children whom he sees at the weekend, children are a great excuse for exercise. Talk about the health behaviours that impact the children exercise/diet, they have a sedentary lifestyle when they visit, this would be an ideal time to engage with Chris and get him to address the lack of exercise, poor diet by using the time he spends at the weekend with the children. Questions such as, what other activities would you and the children enjoy? Encourage and motivate through listening to Chris’s own motivations for change. By working through decisional balance, helping Chris to see how the pros of lifestyle behaviour change can outweigh the cons. With each stage self-efficacy will improve helping to motivate Chris to abstain from unhealthy patterns. What needs to be changed? Setting the agenda – there are several factors that Chris faces, many which could be improved by diet, exercise and smoking, but social and emotional factors must be taken into consideration. Through motivational interviewing Chris can identify what his priorities are. This is also a good time to provide advice based on health statistics, for instance combining smoking with a healthier diet and more exercise will reduce his risk of coronary heart disease (NHS Choices). Adopting an exercise pattern into daily life can reduce blood pressure, (Blood Pressure UK) easier to start off with small exercise sessions and build up gradually. Areas for management Plan to include: Exercise: Suggest exercise plan which includes family activities, swimming, cycling (NHS.UK/livewell/fitness), (NHS.uk/letsgetmoving) Diet: Cut down on takeaways, suggest alternative treats to replace the usual weekend takeaway food, and cooking together with the children a great way to learn and motivate, provide nutritional information/guidelines for salt, fat and sugar intake and suggest ways to set achievable targets Smoking: Cutting down on smoking to reduce major health risks Social: To join fitness clubs based on interests and ability References Blood Pressure UK http://www.bloodpressureuk.org/BloodPressureandyou/Yourlifestyle/Beingactive NHS Choices. Coronary Heart Disease Prevention http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Coronary-heart-disease/Pages/Prevention.aspx 1

Miracles and Science Essay

1. Introduction: Miracles as violations of the laws of nature Unbelievable, isn’t it, that there are still students at this university who believe in stories from the Bible, said Martin, an older colleague, at one of the formal dinners around which the traditional life of Oxford University revolves. But Martin, I answered, their faith probably doesn’t differ much from mine. I can still see his face go pale while he nearly choked on his glass of St. Emilion Grand Cru Classà ©: How can you believe in such things nowadays – Walking on water, a resurrection from the dead? Those are miracles, and aren’t you a scientist? Oh, how interesting, say John and Ruth, a couple that I have just met at the end of a church service. You are a scientist. They look a bit unsure of what to say next and John blurts out, I read recently that we still don’t understand how birds can fly so many miles to the south and yet return to exactly the same place each summer. Scientists can’t explain this; it is a miracle, don’t you think? I never quite know what to say next in such conversations. Perhaps nine years of living in Britain have made me too sensitive to that most cardinal of English social sins – causing embarrassment. But there is more to it than that. Behind these statements lies a tangle of complex intellectual issues related to the definition and scope of science, the nature of God’s action in the world, and the reliability and interpretation of the Bible. These have exercised many of greatest minds in history: The debate between atheism and religious belief has gone on for centuries, and just about every aspect of it has been explored to the point where even philosophers seem bored with it. The outcome is stalemate. 1 So says my Oxford colleague Alister McGrath. Although these subtleties are well known to philosophers and historians of  science, public discourse on science and religion often seems blissfully unaware of them. 2 Everyone brings a set of presuppositions to the table. To make progress, these should first be brought out into the open. Without time for an honest conversation in which we can listen to each other in depth, I won’t know exactly what Martin, John, or Ruth’s presuppositions are. But, for the sake of this essay, I will be a bit presumptuous and venture a guess. My guess would be that, although both seem to be on opposite sides of a vast divide, they are in fact influenced by a similar perspective on science and miracles, one first laid down by the great sceptical Scottish philosopher David Hume, who wrote: A miracle is a violation of the laws of nature, and as a firm and unalterable experience has established these laws, the proof against a miracle, from the very nature of the fact, is as entire as any argument from experience can possibly be imagined. This language of â€Å"miracles as violations of the laws of nature† has framed the debate ever since. Martin, John and Ruth, perhaps without realizing it, are living under the long shadow of David Hume. Martin may think that science is the only reliable route to gaining knowledge about the world, and that, since belief in miracles is obviously unscientific, such belief must ipso facto be false. John and Ruth may feel a similar tension between science and miracles, and are therefore encouraged by any natural process that seems inexplicable. Weakening the power of science would seem to strengthen the case for God acting in the world: If we know that today God miraculously steers a bird back to its original habitat after a long return flight to the south, then it is easier to believe that 2000 years ago he turned water into wine at a wedding in Cana. Now, as a Christian scientist who believes in the miracles of the Bible, I take issue with both of the views above. But to explain this better, I need to first take a step back and answer two critical questions: What do I mean by science, and what does  the Bible say about miracles? 2. Defining Science The problem of deciding where to draw the lines around science has vexed generations of philosophers. Like many unsolved issues, it has been given its own name—â€Å"the demarcation problem.† Although one can determine with some degree of consensus what the extremes of the science/non-science continuum are, exactly where the boundary lies is fuzzy. This doesn’t mean, however, that we cannot recognize science when we see it4, but rather that a watertight definition is difficult to create. The old fashioned idea (still taught in many schools) that scientific practice follows a well-defined linear process—first make an observation, then state a hypothesis, and then test that hypothesis—is certainly far too simple. Science as a tapestry Rather than attempt to come up with a careful and precise definition of science or scientific practice, I will instead resort to a favorite metaphor of mine. It originates with one of my former teachers at Cornell, the p hysicist David Mermin, who describes science as a â€Å"tapestry† woven together from many threads (experimental results, interpretations, explanations, etc.).5 It is only when one examines the tapestry as a whole that it will (or will not) make a convincing pattern. Creating scientific tapestries is a collective endeavor building on mutual trust and the communal experience of what kinds of arguments and evidence are likely to stand the test of time. In part because the skill of weaving reliable scientific tapestries relies on subtle judgements, a young scientist may work for years as an apprentice of older and more experienced practitioners before branching out on his own. In this process there are many parallels with the guilds of old. I am fond of this metaphor because it describes what I think I experience from the inside as a scientist. Moreover, it also emphasizes the importance of coherence and consistency when I weave together arguments and data to make an â€Å"inference to a best explanation.†6 The strong communal element inherent in scientific practice has at times been seized upon by sociologists of science to argue that s cientific knowledge is just one more type of human construct with no greater  claim on reality than any other form of knowledge. But scientists as a whole have reacted to this proposition in a negative way.7 Although they agree that all kinds of economic, historical and social factors do play a role in the formation of scientific theories, they would argue that, in the long run, the scientific process does lead to reliable knowledge about the world. The view of nature embraced by most scientists that I know could be described as critical realism. They are realists because they believe that there is a world out there that is independent of our making. The adjective â€Å"critical† is added because they recognize that extracting knowledge about that world is not always straightforward. Thus, the primary role of the collective nature of the scientific process is to provide a network of error-correcting mechanisms that prevent us from fooling ourselves. The continual testing against nature refines and filters out competing scientific theories, leading to advances in the strength and reliability of our scien tific knowledge tapestries. Although there are many commonalities in the ways that scientists in distinct fields assemble their tapestry arguments, there can also be subtle differences. These differences are foisted on us in part by the types of problems that each field attempts to address. For example, as a theoretical physicist I’ve been trained in a tradition of what the Nobel Laureate Eugene Wigner called â€Å"the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics:† The miracle of the appropriateness of the language of mathematics for the formulation of the laws of physics is a wonderful gift which we neither understand nor deserve. We should be grateful for it and hope that it will remain valid in future research and that it will extend, for better or for worse, to our pleasure, even though perhaps also to our bafflement, to wide branches of learning.8 We believe, based on a history of spectacular success, that mathematical consistency among threads is a key indicator of strong tapestries.9 These days, I spend much of my time interacting with biologists who tend to view my confidence  in the ability of theoretical models to extract knowledge about the physical world with great suspicion.10 I, on the other hand, am often instinctively sceptical of the huge error bars that can afflict their data.11 To a large degree, these cultural differences are forced on us by the kinds of questions we study. My reaction above arises because physics is self-limiting. As a community we simply don’t deal with problems of the same level of complexity that biology does. If an experiment is too messy we will often define it away by declaring â€Å"that isn’t physics,† and move on. Similarly, molecular biologists can afford to be more selective about their data than medical scientists or psychologists can.12 But, despite these cultural differences, which can lead to heated and sometimes frustrating discussion, we do agree on a number of ground rules for defining what makes a tapestry strong. For example, what we either predict or measure should be repeatable. If I claim to see an effect in an experiment, someone else in a different lab should be able to reliably measure the same effect.13 That simple requirement has many ramifications for the types of problems we are able to address The limits of science There are many questions that simply are not amenable to purely scientific analysis. A very lucid discussion of this issue can be found in the book The Limits of Science by Nobel Prize winner (and atheist) Sir Peter Medawar, who wrote: That there is indeed a limit upon science is made very likely by the existence of questions that science cannot answer and that no conceivable advance of science would empower it to answer†¦ It is not to science, therefore but to metaphysics, imaginative literature or religion that we must turn for answers to questions having to do with first and last things. and Science is a great and glorious enterprise – the most successful, I argue, that human beings have ever engaged in. To reproach it for its inability to answer all the questions we should like to put to it is no more sensible than to reproach a railway locomotive for not flying or, in general, not performing any other operation for which it was not designed.14 Science’s great power derives from its self-imposed limits. It is wrong to ask it to pronounce on issues outside its jurisdiction. In fact, the most important decisions in life cannot be addressed solely by the scientific method, nor do people really live as if they can. In the words of Sir John Polkinghorne, former professor of Mathematical Physics at Cambridge and Anglican priest: We are entitled to require a consistency between what people write in their studies and the way in which they live their lives. I submit that no-one lives as if science were enough. Our account of the world must be rich enough – have a thick enough texture and a sufficiently generous rationality – to contain the total spectrum of human meeting with reality. But just because we don’t live life by the scientific method doesn’t mean that the only alternative is irrationality. For example, if I were to decide to get married, a truly irrational approach would be to pick a random woman off the street. Instead, assuming I find a potentially willing partner, it is wise to go through a period of courtship during which we get to know each other. We may also ask for the opinion of wise friends. There are helpful counseling programs with compatibility lists, etc. that, in fact, often use knowledge that scientific techniques have extracted from our collective experience and wisdom. But at the end of the day I can’t demand scientific certainty before deciding to marry someone. Nor is it wise to perform repeatable experiments! I need to make a volitional step because there are aspects of marriage that I can only see from the inside.15 Another example of a method used to obtain knowledge is the legal process which, although it is a tightly organized system, is not strictly scientific. Similarly, a historian will use a combination of evidence (e.g. manuscripts) and understanding about the thinking patterns of a particular era to make informed judgements about what happened in the past. Clearly, this big question of how to extract reliable  information about the world, how to separate fact from mere opinion, is indeed a very difficult and important one. 3. Miracles and the Bible How can we then judge whether or not the miracles of the Bible are reliable? Since the word miracle has taken on so many different meanings, it is important to first examine the biblical language. The New Testament predominantly uses three words for miracle: ï‚ ·teras, a wonder ï‚ ·dunamis, an act of power ï‚ ·semeion, a sign Sometimes it combines all three, as in Acts 2:22: Men of Israel, listen to this: Jesus of Nazareth was a man accredited by God to you by miracles (dunamis), wonders (teras) and signs (semeion), which God did among you through him, as you yourselves know. The word teras (wonder) is almost always used together with one of the other words, emphasizing that the main point of biblical miracles is not to merely elicit amazement but rather to serve a higher theological purpose. For this reason, biblical miracles cannot be understood outside of the theological context within which they occur. They are not anomalous events. This principle provides a key to the proper assessment of their validity. Nature is what God does Miracles happen against a backdrop. In this context, it is illuminating to see how the Bible describes God’s action in the natural world. For example in Psalm 104, that great poem about nature, we read, He makes springs pour water into the ravines, it flows between the mountains The first part of this verse refers to God’s direct action while the second part suggests that water flows through its own natural properties. Read the Psalm for yourself and notice how fluidly the point of view changes back and forth between what we might call the laws of nature and the direct action of God. Such dual descriptions can be found throughout the Bible. The New Testament is even more explicit: The Son is the radiance of God’s glory and the exact representation of his being, sustaining all things by his powerful word. (Hebrews 1:3)  and He is before all things, and in him all th ings hold together (Col 1:17) In other words, if God were to stop sustaining all things by his powerful word, the world would stop existing. That is why, when describing nature, the Bible so easily switches perspectives depending on whether it is emphasizing the regular behavior of natural phenomena, or their origin in God’s providential sustenance. So, as St. Augustine might say, Nature is what [God] does.16 Augustine doesn’t mean that nature is the same as God (pantheism), for, as he also argued, God operates outside of space and time. Nevertheless, and this is a very subtle point, 17 a case can be made for ascribing some independent causal power to the laws of nature. On the other hand, there is no room within a robust biblical theism for the opposite deistic notion that God started the world and then left it to run on its own, completely independently, because descriptions of God’s continuous care for creation are found throughout Scripture: Are not two sparrows sold for a penny? Yet not one of them will fall to the ground apart from the will of your Father. And even the very hairs of your head are all numbered. (Matthew 10:29,30) As Christian thinkers throughout the Middle Ages wrestled with the questions of miracles and God’s action in the world, the following ideas emerged: if the regularities of nature are a manifestation of the sustenance of God then one would expect them to be trustworthy and consistent, rather than capricious. The regular behavior of nature could be viewed as the â€Å"customs of the Creator† as it were. Christians glorify God by studying these â€Å"laws of nature.† A strong case can be made that such theological realizations helped pave the way for the rise of modern science.18 By the time the Royal Society of London, the world’s first scientific society, was founded in 1660, Christian thinkers like the metaphysical poet John Donne, then dean of St. Paul’s Cathedral in London, could write: the ordinary things in Nature, would be greater miracles than the extraordinary, which we  admire most, if they were done but once†¦ only the daily doing takes off the admiration.19 God of the gaps A similar sentiment lies behind a famous exchange between those old adversaries, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Sir Isaac Newton. The latter noticed that the orbits of the planets did not appear to be stable when calculated over long periods, and postulated that the solar system needed occasional â€Å"reformation† by God. Leibniz objected that,  if God had to remedy the defects of His creation, this was surely to demean his craftsmanship. 20 In other words, the regular sustaining activity of God, as evidenced by natural laws, should be sufficient t o explain the regular behaviour of the solar system, without the need for additional ad-hoc interventions. Making it right the first time is more glorious than having to fix it later. In the same context, Leibniz also emphasised the theological nature of miracles: And I hold, that when God works miracles, he does not do it in order to supply the wants of nature, but those of grace. Whoever thinks otherwise, must needs have a very mean notion of the wisdom and power of God.21 A more modern version of Leibniz’s general objection can be found in a famous statement by Charles Coulson, the first Oxford professor of Theoretical Chemistry who wrote, When we come to the scientifically unknown, our correct policy is not to rejoice because we have found God; it is to become better scientists.22 He popularized the phrase â€Å"God of the gaps† for those who, perhaps like John and Ruth, think that God is found primarily in the lacunas of our scientific understanding. Two sorts of miracles Science, as well as tools from historical disciplines, can be brought to bear on biblical miracles. For example they can be split into those that are examples of providential timing (type i miracles) and those that can only be viewed as directly violating physical cause-effect  relationships (type ii miracles). An example of a possible type i miracle would be the crossing of the river Jordan by the people of Israel: Now the Jordan is at flood stage all during harvest. Yet as soon as the priests who carried the ark reached the Jordan and their feet touched the water’s edge, the water from upstream stopped flowing. It piled up in a heap a great distance away, at a town called Adam in the vicinity of Zarethan, while the water flowing down to the Sea of the Arabah (the Salt Sea) was completely cut off. So the people crossed over opposite Jericho. (Joshua 3:15,16) Colin Humphreys, Cambridge professor of material science, has studied this miracle in great detail 23 and notes that the text supplies a number of unusual clues, including the fact that the water was blocked up a great distance away at a particular town. He has identified this with a location where the Jordan has been known to temporarily dam up when strong earthquakes cause mudslides (most recently in 1927). For many scientists, the fact that God is working through natural processes makes the miracle more palatable: The scientist, even when he is a believer, is bound to try as far as possible to reduce miracles to regularities: the believer, even when he is a scientist, discovers miracles in the most familiar things.24 Of course this doesn’t take away from the fact that there was remarkable timing involved. Perhaps the attraction of this description comes in part because there is a direct corollary with the very common experience of â€Å"providential timing† of events, which believers attribute to God’s working.25 There are also miracles in the Bible that defy description in terms of current science. Perhaps the most significant of these is the resurrection of Jesus Christ. If anything, science has strengthened the case for this not being a type i miracle. For example, in John 19:34 we read: Instead, one of the soldiers pierced Jesus’ side with a spear, bringing a sudden flow of blood and water. Modern medicine suggests that this is clear evidence that the pericardium, a membrane around the heart, was pierced, confirming that he was in fact dead. The more we know about the processes of decay that set in after death, the less likely it appears that Jesus could have risen from the dead by any natural means. Rather, science strengthens the case that if Jesus did indeed rise from the dead, the event must have occurred through a direct injection of supernatural power into the web of cause and effect that undergirds our physical world – it was a type ii miracle. Of course the resurrection is central to Christian teaching: And if Christ has not been raised, our preaching is useless and so is your faith. (I Corinthians 15:14) Given that almost every great Christian thinker in history has emphasized the fact that miracles must be understood within the context of a theological purpose, perhaps one could invert this argument and say that it is not surprising that the central eve nt in history would be miraculous. 26 So where has this argument brought us? I have argued that the precise relationship between miracles and science has been the subject of a long and unresolved debate with strands reaching back to the early Church fathers. Theologians wrestle with questions that concern the differences between God’s regular sustaining action and His special non-repeating actions, i.e. miracles, and how these fit in with redemptive purpose. There is a link to the question of demarcation in science, since within a robust biblical theism the regular working of God’s action, the â€Å"customs of the Creator† (or natural laws) are, almost by design, amenable to scientific analysis. Biblical miracles, in contrast, are always linked to special theological purpose and are therefore, almost by definition, non-repeatable and a-scientific. 4. The decisive significance of worldviews If Martin and I would have time to get this far in conversation, I’m sure we would have swiftly passed th e red herring of natural science being the touchstone upon which to examine biblical miracles. But Martin could point out that Hume made a number of other arguments against miracles, namely: Witness testimony is often suspect. ï‚ ·Stories get exaggerated in the retelling. Miracles are chiefly seen among ignorant and barbarous people. ï‚ ·Rival religions also have miracle stories, so they cancel each other out. These arguments are substantial, and I refer to footnote 3 for an introduction to the voluminous literature they have inspired. However, we can take a little stab at the first two objections. It is true that witness testimony cannot always be trusted and that stories change with time. But these are the same problems that face legal systems and historians. Nonetheless, we can employ the tools of these professions to examine biblical miracles. Take, for example, the resurrection of Jesus Christ. There is significant extrabiblical historical evidence that he indeed lived. Much has been written about the general trustworthiness of the Gospels. For example, there is much internal evidence, in both the style and content of the narratives, that the writers themselve s were convinced that Jesus did indeed rise from the dead. Tradition holds that 11 of the 12 original apostles were martyred for this belief that turned a group of cowards into a people who â€Å"turned the world upside down.† Although it is well beyond the scope of this essay, a very strong case for the plausibility of the resurrection can be made.27 Similar analysis can be brought to bear on other miracle claims, including those of other religions. After all, every meaningful system of thought must be open to careful scrutiny. But I suspect that often, underneath the surface, it is really the third argument that carries the most persuasive force. In part because history is littered with claims for the miraculous that seem bizarre, or smack of superstition, and in part because the incredible advances of modern science and technology inspire awe, we can intensely feel the attraction of identifying with the latter and not the former. This disposition is exemplified in the following quote by the theologian Rudolph Bultmann, a man famous for his attempts to de-mythologize the New Testament: It is impossible to use electric light and the wireless and to avail ourselves of modern medical and surgical discoveries, and at the same time to believe in the New Testament world of spirits and miracles.28 By getting rid of the miracle stories in the Bible,  Bultmann and his followers hoped to make the Christian story more palatable to modern man. Although I recognize the emotional weight of this sentiment, I am not convinced that it is an intellectually coherent approach, mainly for reasons of self-consistency. If the New Testamentitself asserts, both directly and indirectly, that the historicity of the resurrection is foundational to Christianity, then it would seem to stand or fall by that fact. As a physicist, I have a natural penchant for wanting to see how an idea relates to more basic principles. And to analyze the validity of a quote like the one above, we must take a cold hard look at our fundamental presuppositions. In the words of John Polkinghorne: If we are to understand the nature of reality, we have only two possible starting points: either the brute fact of the physical world or the brute fact of a divine will and purpose behind that physical world.29 Where does each of those two fundamental starting points take us? When we use them to construct a worldview, what kind of sense does it make of experience, morality, truth, beauty, and our place in the world? These are not easy questions. There is so much mystery around us. Perhaps the best way to move forward would be to borrow Mermin’s tapestry analogy and carefully investigate whether the different threads of historical evidence, philosophical consistency, and personal knowledge can be woven together into a worldview that is robust. In particular, does our tapestry posses those qualities of coherence and (surprising) fruitfulness that characterise the best scientific tapestries? If I start from the brute facts of nature, I personally am unable to construct a tapestry that is both rigorous and rich enough to make sufficient sense of the world. By contrast, if I assume a divine will and purpose behind the world I believe that I can construct a much more compelling tapesty that incorporates all of the threads of human  existence. Within that purposeful world, the case for Christianity is much more persuasive. To use a famous quote from C.S. Lewis: I believe in Christianity as I believe that the Sun has risen-not only because I see it, but because by it, I see everything else.30 It is the sum total of all those arguments that convinces me of the veracity of biblical miracles. Nevertheless, I recognize that no matter how cogent, say, the historical evidence for the resurrection is, if I start from a different worldview, as Martin and Rudolph Bultmann do, then it will be virtually impossible to accept the existence of biblical miracles. (In the end I think this is what Hume is really saying). Miracles cannot be interpreted independently from the theological context in which they function. They are part of a package deal. I don’t know what Martin would make of all that. We would surely need more than one glass of wine to complete this discussion (but wouldn’t it be fun?). 5. Conclusion Finally, what would I say to John and Ruth? If they are like many Christians I know, they might feel a slight uneasiness with science, a subconscious fear fed by the pontifications of some popularizers who seem keen to equate science with atheism.31 So perhaps I would first point out the obvious limits of science. But then I might tell the story of Leibniz and Newton’s exchange, and point out that Newton was a good enough theologian not to turn the alleged instability of the planets into a God of the gaps argument. Similarly, if it is true that we don’t yet understand how birds can navigate so accurately over large distances, then surely it would bring more glory to God to search for the mechanisms by which such remarkable feats are accomplished: It is the glory of God to conceal a matter; to search out a matter is the glory of kings. Proverbs 25:2 Perhaps because evolution has been a particularly favorite bludgeon of the science = atheism cabal, a Christian mini-industry has sprung up to debunk it. Unfortunately, this only feeds the public misperception that the core of the conflict between science and faith concerns scientific mechanism (evolution did or did not occur) rather than one of the philosophy and interpretation of science. God could, of course, have regularly used miracles to create throughout the time-span of natural history. He is free. But whether he did so in natural history is fundamentally a question of Biblical interpretation. 32 Surely it is even more glorious if God could design a physical system that creates itself through the regularities of his sustaining action. Like many of my Christian scientific colleagues who hold to a high view of Scripture, I believe the biblical text allows itself to be interpreted in this way, that sentient beings arose primarily through the ordinary â€Å"customs of the Creato r,† and that moreover it glorifies God to seek to understand these patterns.33 John and Ruth might then ask: if I emphasize the integrity of the regular action of God in sustaining the universe, and even in creating us, then why should miracles occur at all? Can they occur today? Rather than answer that theological question directly, let me resort to a musical analogy borrowed from Colin Humphreys. Suppose you are watching a pianist play a classical piece. You will notice that there are certain notes that he plays, and certain ones that he never does. The choice of notes is constrained because the music is being played in a particular key signature. But then, occasionally he may break this rule and play an unusual note. Musicians call these accidentals, and a composer can put them in wherever she likes (although if there are too many the music would sound strange). As Humphreys puts it, If he is a great composer, the accidentals will never be used capriciously: they will always make better music. It is the accidentals which contribute to making the piece of music great. The analogy with how God operates is clear: God created and upholds the universe but, like the great composer, he is free to override his own rules. However, if he is a c onsistent God, it must make more sense than less for him to override his rules.34 Notes 1. 2. 3. Alister McGrath, Dawkins’ God: Genes, Memes and the Meaning of Life, (Blackwell, Oxford 2005) p 92. A good example of this is Richard Dawkins, The God Delusion, (Bantam, London 2006) David Hume, Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding and Concerning the Principles of Morals, (1748). Hume’s argument has often been criticized for being self-referential. He at first presupposes that no reasonable person can believe that the laws of nature can be violated, and then concludes that miracles cannot occur because he defines them as violations of the laws of nature. Note that this analysis is not accepted by all commentators. Colin Brown, Miracles and the Critical Mind, (Paternoster, Exeter, 1984) provides a lucid overview of the debate. See also John Earman, Hume’s Abject Failure. The Argument against Miracles (Oxford University Press, Oxford 2000) for a critical view, and Peter Harrison, â€Å"Miracles, Early Modern Science, and Rational Religion†, Church History 75 (3) pp. 493-511 (2006) for an interesting historical perspective. I am reminded of a famous quote by US Supreme Court judge Potter Stewart who, when asked to distinguish between art and pornography, noted that although it was hard to define: â€Å"I know it when I see it† (Jacobellis v. Ohio (1964)). N. David Mermin, â€Å"The Golemization of Relativity†, Physics Today 49, 11–13 (1996) Peter Lipton, Inference to the Best Explanation, (Routledge, London, 2004) In the 1990’s this tension between sociologists and the scientific community erupted into the so-called ‘Science Wars’. For a good overview, see e.g. J. A. Labinger and H. Collins (eds), The One Culture? A Conversation about Science, (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2001). Quote from Nobel Prize winner E. Wigner, â€Å"The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences†, Communications in Pure and Applied Mathematics, vol. 13, No. I (February 1960). An iconic example would be Paul Dirac’s 1928 prediction of anti-ma tter, which he showed to be necessary to satisfy the mathematical consistency constraints  imposed by combining quantum mechanics and special relativity for electrons. See P.A.M. Dirac, Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 117, 610 (1928). The cultural differences between more mathematically minded physical scientists and more empirically minded biological scientists are discussed by Evelyn Fox Keller, in a fascinating book: Making Sense of Life: Explaining Biological Development with Models, Metaphors, and Machines, Harvard University Press, Boston (2002). Such instinctive reactions are what make interdisciplinary research so difficult. Clearly biology has been incredibly successful despite its differences with my scientific culture. I also suggest that as the questions we ask become difficult (often the case for applied subjects like medicine), the tapestries, by necessity, become more fragile. I realize that this is more subtle for historical sciences like geology and cosmology (we have, for example, only observed one universe). Nevertheless, even in these fields, parallel concepts apply. P.B. Medawar, The Limits of Science, Oxford University Press, Oxford (1987) . There are interesting analogies here to making a religious commitment. Christians would argue that important aspects of the Christian life can only be understood and experienced from within a relationship with Christ. That is not to say that a step of faith is just a blind leap in the dark. It should be a decision that is informed by careful thinking and weighing of evidence. But it is more than just that. Augustine, Literal Commentary on Genesis, c AD 391 See e.g. C. J. Collins, Science and Faith: Friends or Foes? (Crossway, Wheaton, 2003) ch 11. See e.g. R. Hooykaas, Religion and the Rise of Modern Science, (Eerdmans, Grand Rapids,1972) John Donne (Eighty Sermons, #22 published in 1640) John Hedley Brooke, Science and Religion , CUP, Cambridge (1991), p147. Leibniz, as quoted by C. Brown, Miracles and the Critical Mind, (Paternoster, Exeter, 1984), p 75. Charles Coulson, Christianity in an Age of Science, 25th Riddell Memorial Lecture Series, Oxford University Press, Oxford, (1953). Colin Humphreys The Miracles of Exodus: A Scientist’s Discovery of the Extraordinary Natural Causes of the Biblical Stories, (Harper Collins, San Francisco, 2003). R. Hooykaas, op cit One could argue that God must nevertheless employ divine action to set up the conditions necessary for a type i miracle to occur at the right time. In that sense both kinds of miracles may involve violations of normal physical cause-effect relations, but in type i this is more hidden. Note that I am not arguing that miracles  break ultimate cause-effect relationships. Within a divine economy, they may make perfect causal sense. Language like â€Å"violation of physical cause-effect† reflects our limited access to the mind of God.